Exposures to recreational drugs, alcohol, smoking, chemotherapy, radiation, prescription and over-the-counter drugs, environmental and/or occupational exposures may affect a by altering the production, size, shape or performance of his sperm. Animal data also suggest that paternal exposures can cause genetic changes that can result in the loss of the developing embryo or the risk of childhood cancers. Consistent with animal findings, there is also growing epidemiologic evidence of associations between male exposures and fetal loss, birth defects or childhood cancer.
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