Birth Defects: Scientific References

last updated in 2004

Aberg A, Westbom L, Kallen B. Congenital malformations among infants whose mothers had gestational diabetes or preexisting diabetes. Early Human Development 2001 Mar; 61(2):85-95.

Andrews, JS Jr. Polychlorodibenzodioxins and Polychlorodibenzofurans. Hazardous Materials Toxicology, Clinical Principals of Environmental Health, J.B. Sullivan, Jr., and G.R. Krieger, Editors; Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore, Maryland, pages 756-761, 71 references, 1992.

Arpino C, Brescianini S, Robert E et al. Teratogenic effects of antiepileptic drugs: use of International Database on Malformations and Drug Exposure (MADRE). Epilepsia 2000 Nov;41(11):1436-43.

Bao YS, Cai S, Zhao SF et al. Birth defects in the offspring of female workers occupationally exposed to carbon disulfide in China. Teratology 1991 May;43(5):451-2.

Barlow SM, Sullivan FM. Reproductive hazards associated with different occupational groups. Reproductive Hazards of Industrial Chemicals; London, England, Academic Press, pages 32-39, 15 references, 1982.

Battin M, Albersheim S, Newman D. Congenital genitourinary tract abnormalities following cocaine exposure in utero. AmM J Perinatol 1995 Nov;12(6):425-8.

Bell E, Hertz-Picciotto I, Beuamont J. A case-control study of pesticides and fetal death due to congenital anomalies. Epidemiology 2001 12(2):148-156.

Bellinger D, Leviton A, Allred E, Rabinowitz M. Pre- and postnatal lead exposure and behavior problems in school-age children. Environ Res 1994 66:12-30.

Bianchi F, Cianciulli D, Pierini A et al. Congenital malformations and maternal occupation: a registry based case-control study. Occup Environ Med 1997 Apr;54(4):223-8.

Blatter B, Roeleveld N. Spina bifida and parental occupation in a Swedish register-based study. Scand J Work Environ Health 22(6):433-437, 1996.

Bobak M 2000. Outdoor air pollution, low birth weight, and prematurity. Environmental Health Perspectives 108(2):173-6.

Bove FJ, Fulcomer MC, Klotz JB et al. Public drinking water contamination and birth outcomes. Am J Epidemiol 1995 May 1;141(9):850-62.

Brender JD, Suarez L. Paternal occupation and anencephaly. Am J Epidemiol 1990 Mar;131(3):517-21.

Brender JD, Suarez L, Hendricks KA et al. Parental occupation and risk of neural tube defect-affected pregnancies among Mexican Americans. Am J Epidemiol 2001 Jun;153(11):S165.

Burns L, Meade B, Munson A. Toxic responses of the immune system. In: Casarett and Doull’s Toxicology: The basic science of poisons. 5^th ed. Ed: Klassen C. New York, NY, McGraw-Hill, 1996.

Burton BK, Schulz CJ, Burd LI. Limb abnormalities associated with chorionic villus sampling (CVS). Pediatr Res 1992 Apr;31(4 Pt 2):69A.

CBDMP. California Birth Defect Monitoring Program. http://www.cdph.ca.gov/Programs/CFH/DGDS/Pages/cbdmp/default.aspx Accessed January, 2004.

Carr BK. Congenital limb reduction defects in infants: a look at possible associations with maternal smoking and hypertension. NTIS Technical Report (NTIS/AD-A330 296) 1997 Oct;:29 pp.

Castilla EE, Ashton-Prolla P, Barreda-Mejia E et al. Thalidomide, a current teratogen in South America. Teratology 1996 Dec;54(6):273-7.

Cedergren MI, Selbing AJ, Kallen BA. Risk factors for cardiovascular malformation—a study based on prospectively collected data. Scand J Work Environ Health 2002 Feb;28(1):12-7.

Cedergren MI, Selbing AJ, Lofman O et al. Chlorination byproducts and nitrate in drinking water and risk for congenital cardiac defects. Environ Res 2002 Jun;89(2):124-30.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center on Birth Defects and Developmental Disabilities. Autism Spectrum Disorders. http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/index.html

Chan E, Zhan C, Homer CJ. Health care use and costs for children with attention-deficit / hyperactivity disorder: national estimates from the medical expenditure panel survey. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2002 May;156(5):504-11.

Chung, C.S., Myrianthoupoulos, N.C., 1975. Risks of Congenital Malformations. The National Foundation March of Dimes Original Article Series, Vol. XI, No. 10

Chung KC, Kowalski CP, Kim HM et al. Maternal cigarette smoking during pregnancy and the risk of having a child with cleft lip/palate. Plast Reconstr Surg 2000 Feb;105(2):485-91.

Committee to Review the Health Effects in Vietnam Veterans of Exposure to Herbicides, Institute of Medicine. Conclusions About health outcomes: health outcomes with limitied/suggestive evidence of an association. Veterans and Agent Orange: Update 1996 pages 1-7 to 1-9, National Academy Press 1996.

Consensus statement. Statement from the work session on chemically-induced alterations in the developing immune system: the wildlife/human connection. Environmental Health Perspectives 1996 104(suppl 4):807-808.

Cordero JF, Oakley GP, Greenberg F et al. Is Bendectin a teratogen? JAMA 1981 Jun 12;245(22):2307-10.

Cordier S, Bergeret A, Goujard J et al. Congenital malformation an maternal occupational exposure to glycol ethers. Epidemiology 1997 Jul;8(4):355-63.

Cordier S, Ha MC, Ayme S et al. Maternal occupational exposure and congenital malformations. Scand J Work Environ Health 1992 Feb;18(1):11-7.

Correa A, Loffredo C, Ferencz C et al. Lead and solvent exposure during pregnancy: possible risk of cardiovascular malformations (CVM). Teratology 1990 May;41(5):545.

Correa-Villaseanor A, Ferencz C, Loffredo C et al. Paternal exposures and cardiovascular malformations. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol 1993;3 Suppl 1:173-85.

Correa-Villaseanor A, Wilson PD, Loffredo C et al. Cardiovascular malformation and prenatal environmental exposures. Pediatr Res 1991 Apr;29(4 Pt 2):17A.

Correa-Villaseanor A, Loffredo C, Ferencz C et al. Heterogeneity of etiology and exposure, nondifferential misclassification, and bias in the study of birth defects. Am J Epidemiol 1990;132(4):796.

Correy JF, Newman NM, Collins JA et al. Use of prescription drugs in the first trimester and congenital malformations. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol 1991 Nov;31(4):340-4.

Crinella F, Cordova E, Ericson J. Manganese, aggression, and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Neurotoxicol 1998 19(3):468-469.

Croen LA, Shaw GM, Sanbonmatsu L, Selvin S et al. Maternal residential proximity to hazardous waste sites and risk for selected congenital malformations. Epidemiology 1997 Jul;8(4):347-54.

Croen L, Grether J. Response: a response to Blaxill, Baskin, and Spitzer on Croen et al. (2002), “The changing prevalence of autism in California.” J Autism Developmental Disorders 33(2):227-229, 2003.

Czeizel AE, Rockenbauer M, Sorensen HT et al. A population-based case-control teratologic study of ampicillin treatment during pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2001 Jul;185(1):140-7.

Czeizel AE, Rockenbauer M. A population-based case-control teratologic study of oral oxytetracycline treatment during pregnancy. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2000 Jan;88(1):27-33.

Dejmek J, Selevan SG, Benes I, Solansky I ,Sram RJ 1999. Fetal growth and maternal exposure to particulate matter during pregnancy. Environmental Health Perspectives 107(6):475-80.

Dimich-Ward H, Hertzman C, Teschke K, Hershler R, Marion SA, Ostry A, et al. Reproductive effects of paternal exposure to chlorophenate wood preservatives in the sawmill industry. Scand J Work Environ Health 22(4):267-73, 1996.

Dolk H, Vrijheid M, Armstrong B et al. Risk of congenital anomalies near hazardous-waste landfill sites in Europe: the EUROHAZCON study. Lancet 1998 Aug 8;352(9126):423-7.

Donald J, Hooper K, Hopenheyn-Rich C. Developmental toxicity of toluene: evidence from animal and human studies. Arch Environ Health 1991 Mar-Apr;46(2):125.

Drongowski RA, Smith RK Jr, Coran AG et al. Contribution of demographic and environmental factors to the etiology of gastroschisis: a hypothesis. Fetal Diagn Ther 1991;6(1-2):14-27.

El-Gindi E, Ahmed-Nasr M. Hormonal versus genetic factors in limb and heart anomalies. Cardiovasc Surg 1993 Aug; 1(4):381-3.

Engel LS, O’Meara ES, Schwartz SM. Maternal occupation in agriculture and risk of limb defects in Washington State, 1980-1993. Scand J Work Environ Health 2000 Jun;26(3):193-8.

Engel RR, Smith AH. Arsenic in drinking water and mortality from vascular disease: an ecologic analysis in 30 countries in the United States. Arch Environ Health 1994 Sep-Oct;49(5):418-27.

Ericson A, Kallen BA. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in early pregnancy. Reprod Toxicol 2001 Jul-Aug; 15(4):371-5.

Eskenazi B, Castorina R. Association of prenatal maternal or postnatal child environmental tobacco smoke exposure and neurodevelopmental and behavioral problems in children. Environmental Health Perspectives 107:991-1000, 1999.

Fara GM, Del Corno G. Pregnancy outcome in the Seveso area after TCDD contamination. Progress in Clinical and Biological Research, Vol. 163B, pages 279-285, 14 references, 1985.

Felkner M, Hendricks K, Suarez L et al. Case-control study of association of maternal recall of diarrhea and use of antimicrobials in the preiconceptional period and risk of NTDs. Frontiers in Fetal Health 2001 Feb;3(2):55.

Ferencz C. Congenital heart disease: incidence, prevalence, risk factors. Teratology 1992 May;45(5):494.

Ferencz C, Correa-Villasenor A, Rubin JD et al. The epidemiology of cardiovascular malformations (CVM): ten years later. Teratology 1991 May;43(5):450.

Ferencz C, Loffredo CA, Correa-Villaseanor A et al. Risk factors for pulmonary valve stenosis. Teratology 1996 Feb;52(2):110.

Fombonne E. The prevalence of autism. JAMA 2003 289:87-89.

Freij BJ, South MA, Sever JL. Maternal rubella and the congenital rubella syndrome. Clin Perinatol 1988 Jun;15(2):247-57.

Garcaia AM, Fletcher T. Maternal occupation in the leather industry and selected congenital malformations. Occup Environ Med 1998 Apr;55(4):284-6.

Garcaia AM, Fletcher T, Benavides FG et al. Parental agricultural work and selected congenital malformations. Am J Epidemiol 1999 Jan 1;149(1):64-74.

General Accounting Office, 1991. Report to the Chairman, Committee on Government Affairs, U.S. Senate. Reproductive and Developmental Toxicants. October 1991.

Goldbaum G, Milham S, Daling J. Risk factors for gastroschisis. Seattle, WA. Am J Epidemiol 1989;130(4):805.

Golding J, Vivian S, Baldwin JA. Maternal anti-nauseants and clefts of lip and palate. Hum Toxicol 1983 Jan;2(1):63-73.

Goldman L, Apelberg B, Koduru S, Ward C, Sorian R. Healthy From the Start. The Pew Environmental Health Commission, 2001, http://pewenvirohealth.jhsph.edu/html/reports/technical.pdf.

Greenland S, Ackerman DL. Clomiphene citrate and neural tube defects: a pooled analysis of controlled epidemiologic studies and recommendations for future studies. Fertil Steril 1995 Nov;64(5):936-41.

Guillette E, Meza M, Aguilar M, et al. An anthropological approach to the evaluation of preschool children exposed to pesticides in Mexico. Environmental Health Perspectives 1998 106(6):347-353.

Ha EH, Hong YC, Lee BE, Woo BH, Schwartz J ,Christiani DC. Is air pollution a risk factor for low birth weight in Seoul? Epidemiology 12(6):643-8, 2001.

Haddow JE, Palomaki GE, Holman MS. Young maternal age and smoking during pregnancy as risk factors for gastroschisis. Teratology 1993 Mar;47(3):225-8.

Hayes, Wayland J., Jr. Pesticides Studied in Man. Baltimore/London: Williams and Wilkins, 1982.

Heinonen OP, Slone D, Monson RR et al. Cardiovascular birth defects and antenatal exposure female sex hormones. New England Journal of Medicine 1977 Jan 13;296(2):67-70.

Hendrickx AG, Cukierski M, Prahalada S et al. Evaluation of bendectin embryotoxicity in nonhuman primates: I. Ventricular septal defects in prenatal macaques and baboon. Teratology 1985 Oct;32(2):179-89.

Herbst A, Scully R. Adenocarcinoma of the vagina in adolescence. A report of 7 cases including 6 clear-cell carcinomas. Cancer 25:745-757, 1970.

Hernandez-Diaz S, Werler MM, Walker AM et al. Folic acid antagonists during pregnancy and the risk of birth defects. New England Journal of Medicine 2000 Nov 30;343(22): 1608-14.

Holmberg PC, Hernberg S, Kurppa K et al. Oral clefts and organic solvent exposure during pregnancy. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 1982;50(4):371-6.

Hook EB. Cardiovascular birth defects and prenatal exposure to female sex hormones: a reevaluation of data reanalysis from a large prospective study. Teratology 1994 Mar;49(3):162-6.

Hoyme HE, Jones KL, Dixon SD et al. Prenatal cocaine exposure and fetal vascular disruption. Pediatrics 1990 May:85(5):743-7.

Hsieh FJ, Shyu MK, Sheu BC et al. Limb defects after chorionic villus sampling. Obstet Gynecol 1995 Jan;85(1):84-8.

Hunt, PA, KE Koehler, M Susiarjo, CA Hodges, A Ilagan, RC Voigt, S Thomas, BF Thomas and TJ Hassold. 2003. Bisphenol A exposure causes meiotic aneuploidy in the female mouse. Current Biology 13: 546-553.

Hwang BF, Magnus P, Jaakkola JJ. Risk of specific birth defects in relation to chlorination and the amount of natural organic matter in the water supply. Am J Epidemiol 2002 Aug 15;156(4):374-82.

Hwang S, Beaty T, Panny N, et al. Association study of transforming growth factor alpha (TGF alpha) Taq1 polymorphism and oral clefts: Indication of a gene-environment interaction in a population-based sample of infants with birth defects. Am J Epidemiol 141(7):629-636, 1995.

Irgens A, KrOuger K, Skorve AH et al. Birth defects and paternal occupational exposure. Hypotheses tested in a record linkage based dataset. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 2000 Jun;79(6):465-70.

Irgens A, KrOuger K, Skorve AH et al. Reproductive outcome in offspring of parents occupationally exposed to lead in Norway. Am J Ind Med 1998 Nov:34(5):431-7.

Kaneko S, Kondo T. Antiepileptic agents and birth defects. CNS Drugs 1995 Jan;3(1):41-55.

Klip H, Verloop J, van Gool J et al. Increased risk of hypospadias in male offspring of women exposed to diethylstilbestrol (DES) in utero. Am J Epidemiol 2001 Jun; 153(11):S163.

Koallaen B. A prospective study of some aetiological factors in limb reduction defects in Sweden. J Epidemiol Community Health 1989 Mar;43(1):86-91.

Kozer E, Costei A, Boskovic R et al. Association of aspirin consumption during the first trimester of pregnancy with congenital anomalies: a meta-analysis. Pediatr Res 2002 Apr;51(4 Pt 2):68A-69A.

Kricker A, Elliott JW, Forrest JM, McCredie J. Congenital limb reduction deformities and use of oral contraceptives. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1986 Nov;155(5):1072-8.

Kristensen P, Irgens LM, Andersen A et al. Birth defects among offspring of Norwegian farmers, 1967-1991. Epidemiology 1997 Sep:8(5):537-44.

Landrigan PJ, Schechter CB, Lipton JM, Fahs MC, Schwartz J. Environmental pollutants and disease in American children: estimates of morbidity, mortality, and costs for lead poisoning, asthma, cancer, and developmental disabilities. Environmental Health Perspectives. 2002 Jul;110(7):721-8.

Latini G, DeFelice C, Presta G, et al. In utero exposure to di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate and duration of human pregnancy. Environmental Health Perspectives 111(14):1783-1785, 2003.

Lindhout D, Omtzigt JG. Pregnancy and the risk of teratogenicity. Epilepsia 1992;33 Suppl 4:S41-8.

Lindhout D, Omtzigt JG. Teratogenic effects of antipepileptic drugs: implications for the management of epilepsy in women of childbearing age. Epilepsia 1994;35 Suppl 4:S19-28.

Loffredo CA. The interaction of prenatal solvent exposures with genetic polymorphisms in solvent-metabolizing enzymes: evaluation of risk amoung infants with congenital heart defects. Diss Abstr Int Sci 1997 Sep;58(3):1247B.

Loffredo CA, Beaty TH, Silbergeld EK. Solvent and paint exposure interact with polymorphisms in glutathione-S-transferase genes to increase the risk of congenital heart defects. Teratology 1997 Jan:55(1):42.

Loffredo C, Ferencz C, Correa-Villasenor A. Organic solvents and cardiovascular malformations in the Baltimore-Washington infant study. Teratology 1991 May;43(5):450.

Loffredo CA, Ferencz C, Correa-Villasenor et al. The epidemiology of transposition of the great arteries: environmental risk factors. Teratology 1993 May;47(5):393-4.

Loffredo CA, Ferencz C, Rubin JD et al. A comparative epidemiologic evaluation of risk factors for hypoplastic left heart syndrome, aortic stenosis, and coarctation of the aorta. Teratology 1996 Feb;53(2):115.

Lorente C, Cordier S, Goujard J et al. Tobacco and alcohol use during pregnancy and risk of oral clefts. Occupation Exposure and Congenital Malformation Working Group. Am J Public Health 2000 Mar;90(3):415-9.

Longnecker MP, Klebanoff MA, Brock JW et al. Maternal serum level of DDE and risk of cryptorchidism, hypospadias, and polythelia among male offspring. Am J Epidemiol 2001 Jun;153(11):S267.

Lonky E, Reihman, Darvill T, et al. Neonatal behavioral assessment scale performance in humans influenced by maternal consumption of environmentally contaminated Lake Ontario fish. J Great Lakes Res 22(2):198-212, 1996.

Magnus P, Jaakkola JJ, Skrondal A et al. Water chlorination and birth defects. Epidemiology 1999 Sep;10(5):513-7.

Maisonet M, Bush T, Correa A ,Jaakkola J 2001. Relation between ambient air pollution and low birth weight in the northeastern United States. Environ Health Perspect 109(Supplement 3):351-356.

March of Dimes. Birth Defects. Accessed on line 1 June 2004: http://www.modimes.org/professionals/681_1206.asp

Martainez-Frajas ML, Rodraiguez-Pinilla E, Prieto L. Prenatal exposure to salicylates and gastroschisis: a case-control study. Teratology 1997 Oct;56(4):241-3.

Matalon S, Schechtman S, Goldzweig G et al. The teratogenic effect of carbamzepine: a meta-analysis of 1255 exposures. Reprod Toxicol 2002 Jan-Feb;16(1):9-17.

McMartin K, Chu M, Kopecky E, et al. Pregnancy outcome following maternal organic solvent exposure: a meta-analysis of epidemiologic studies. Am J Ind Med 34(3):288-292, 1998.

Matte TD, Mulinare J, Erickso JD. Case-control study of congenital defects and parental employment in health care. AM J Ind Med 1993 Jul;24(1):11-23.

Milkovich L, van der Berg BJ. Effects of antenatal exposure to anorectic drugs. AM J Obstet Gynecol 1977 Nov 15;129(6):637-42.

Mori C. Possible effects of endocrine disruptors on the reproductive system. Teratology 2001 Apr;63(4):9A

Muir T, Zegarac M. Societal costs of exposure to toxic substances: economic and health costs of four case studies that are candidates for environmental causation. Environmental Health Perspectives 2001. Dec;109 Suppl 6:885-903.

Munger R, Isacson P, Kramer M et al. Birth defects and pesticide-contaminated water supplies in Iowa. AM J Epidemiol 1992;136(8):959.

National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS). Health, United States 2002,  http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/hus.htm.

National Research Council. Hormonally active agents in the environment. National Academy Press; Washington DC. 1999.

National Research Council. Scientific frontiers in developmental toxicology and risk assessment. National Academy Press; Washington DC, 2000.

Nora AH, Nora JJ. A syndrome of multiple congenital anomalies associated with teratogenic exposure. Arch Environ Health 1975 Jan;30(1):17-21.

North K, Golding J. A maternal vegetarian diet in pregnancy is associated with hypospadias. BJU Int 2000 Jan;85(1):107-13.

Nurminen T, Holmberg PC, Kurppa K et al. Maternal solvent exposure and selected birth defects. AM J Epidemiol 2001 Jun;153(11):S164.

Okada T, Tomoda T, Hisakawa H et al. Fetal valproate syndrome with reduction deformity of limb. Acta Paediatr Jpn 1995 Feb;37(1):58-60.

Olshan AF, Teschke K, Baird PA et al. Paternal occupation and congenital anomalies in offspring. AM J Industrial Med, Vol. 20, No. 4, pages 447-475, 36 references, 1991.

Orioli IM, Castilla EE. New associations between prenatal exposures to drugs and malformations. AM J Hum Genet 2000 Oct;67(4 Suppl 2):175.

Orr MF. Birth defects among children of racial or ethnic minority born to women living in close proximity to hazardous waste sites; California, 1983-1988. NTIS Technical Report (NTIS/PB99-139990) 1999 Sep;:76 pp.

Park-Wyllie L, Mazzotta P, Pastuszak A et al. Birth defects after maternal exposure to corticosteroids: prospective cohort study and meta-analysis of epidemiological studies. Teratology 2000 Dec;62(6):385-92.

Perera F, Rauh V, We-Yann T, et al. Effects of transplacental exposure to environmental pollutants on birth outcomes in a multiethnic population. Environmental Health Perspectives 2003 111(2).

Petrini, J, Damus K, Johnston R. An overview of infant mortality and birth defects in the United States. Teratol 1997 56(1-2:8-10.

Redden S, Wingren G. Risk factors for ventricular septal defects (VSD). Am J of Industrial Med, Vol. 23, No. 6, pages 971-973, 9 references, 1993.

Ritz B, Yu F, Chapa G, Fruin S 2000. Effect of air pollution on preterm birth among children born in Southern California between 1989 and 1993. Epidemiology 11(5):502-11.

Robert E. Risk factors for limb reduction defects: review of the epidemiological evidence. Teratology 2001 Apr;63(4):4A-5A.

Rodier P. The early origins of autism. Scientific American 282:56-63, 2000.

Rosa FW, Wilk AL, Kelsey FO. Teratogen update: vitamin A congeners. Teratology 1986 Jun;33(3):355-64.

Rosenberg HS. Cardiovascular effects of congenital infections. Am J Cardiovasc Pathol 1987;1(2):147-56.

Rothman KJ, Fyler DC, Goldblatt A et al. Exogenous hormones and other drug exposures of children with congenital heart disease. Am J Epidemiol 1979 Apr;109(4):433-9.

Rubin JD, Loffredo C, Correa-Vilasenor A et al. Prenatal drug use and congenital cardiovascular malformations. Teratology 1991 May;43(5):423.

Ruttledge J. Genetic factors in clinical developmental toxicology. In: Developmental Toxicology, second edition. Eds: Kimmel C, Buelke-Sam J. Raven Press. New York, 1994.

Saxen I. Associations between oral clefts and drugs taken during pregnancy. Int J Epidemiol 1975 Mar;4(1):37-44.

Schatz M. The efficacy and safety of asthma medications during pregnancy. Semin Perinatol 2001 Jun;25(3):145-52.

Schreinemachers, DM. 2003. Birth malformations and other adverse perinatal outcomes in four U.S. wheat-producing states. Environmental Health Perspectives 111:1259-1264.

Schwartz DA, LoGerfo JP. Congenital limb reduction defects in the agricultural setting. Am J Public Health 1988 Jun;78(6):654-8.

Schettler T, Stein J, Valenti M, Reich F. In Harm’s Way: Toxic Threats to Child Development. Greater Boston Physicians for Social Responsibility. 2000, http://www.igc.org/psr.

Sever LE, Arbuckle TE, Sweeney A. Reproductive and developmental effects of occupational pesticide exposure: the epidemiologic evidence. Occupational Medicine: State of the Art Reviews, Vol. 12, No. 2, pages 305-325, 101 references, 1997.

Sharony R, Garber A, Viskochil D et al. Preaxial ray reduction defects as part of valproic acid embryofetopathy. Prenat Diagn 1993 Oct;13(10):909-18.

Shaw GM, Schulman J, Frisch JD et al. Congenital malformations and birthweight in areas with potential environmental contamination. Arch Environ Health 1992 Mar-Apr;47(2):147-54.

Shaw GM, Wasserman CR, O’Malley CD et al. Maternal pesticide exposure from multiple sources and selected congenital anomalies. Epidemiology 1999 Jan;10(1):60-6.

Shepard T. Catalog of teratogenic agents. Johns Hopkins Univ Press; Baltimore, 1995.

Sherman JD. Chlorpyrifos (Dursban): Associated birth defects: A proposed syndrome, report of four cases, and discussion of the toxicology. International J of Occupational Medicine and Toxicology; 4 (4). 1995. 417-431.

Siffel C, Czeizel AE. Using the Hungarian Birth Defects Registry for surveillance, research and intervention. Cent Eur J Public Health 1997 Jun;5(2):79-81.

Silver RI, Rodriguez R, Chang TS et al. In vitro fertilization is associated with an increased risk of hypospadias. J Urol 1999 Jun;161(6):1954-7.

Singh S, Barrett E, Kalra R, et al. Prenatal cigarette smoke decreases lung cAMP and increases airway hyperresponsiveness. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 168(3):342-347, 2003.

Smulian JC, Beres-Sochka L, DePrince K, Canterino J, Fischer R, Apuzzio J, Royle M. Birth defects surveillance. N J Med 2002 Dec;99(12):25-31.

Steinberger EK, Ferencz C, Loffredo CA. Infants with single ventricle: a population-based epidemiological study. Teratology 2002 Mar;65(3):106-15.

Stewart P, Reihman J, Lonky E, et al. Cognitive development in preschool children prenatally exposed to PCBs and MeHg. Neurotoxicol Teratol 25(1):11-22, 2003.

Stoll C, Alembik Y, Dott B et al. Risk factors in congenital abdominal wall defects: a study in a series of 265,858 consecutive births. Frontiers in Fetal Health 2001 Nov-Dec;3(11-12):284.

Streissguth A, Aase J, Clarren S, et al. Fetal alcohol syndrome in adolescents and adults. JAMA 265(15):1961-1967, 1991.

Sweeny A. Reproductive epidemiology of dioxins. Dioxins and Health, A. Schecter, Editor; Plenum Press, New York, pages 549-585, 69 references, 1994.

Tikhonova GI, Lebedeva NV, Fedorova BV. Influence of organic solvents on child-bearing of female painters (epidemiologic and hygienic study). Meditsina Truda I Promyshlennaya Ekologiya; 0 (3). 1997. 20-24.

Tikkanen J, Heinonen OP. Risk factors for cardiovascular malformations in Finland. Eur J Epidemiol 1990 Dec;6(4):348-56.

Tikkanen J, Heinonen OP. Risk factors for atrial septal defect. Eur J Epidemiol 1992 Jul;8(4):509-15.

Tikkanen J, Heinonen OP. Occupational risk factors for congenital heart disease. International Archives of Occupational and Enviromental Health, Vol. 64, No. 1, pages 59-64, 41 references, 1992.

Tikkanen J, Heinonen OP. Cardiovascular malformations and organic solvent exposure during pregnancy in Finland. Am J of Industrial Medicine, Vol. 14, No. 1, pages 1-8, 21 references, 1988.

Toppari J. Environmental endocrine disrupters and disorders of sexual differentiation. Semin Reprod Med 2002 20(3):305-312.

Torfs CP, Wang SX, Katz EA et al. Occupational, recreational, and medical risk factors for gastroschisis. Teratology 1994 May;49(5):374.

Torfs CP, Katz EA, Bateson TF et al. Maternal medications and environmental exposures as risk factors for gastroschisis. Teratology 1996 Aug;54(2):84-92.

Vinceti M, Rovesti S, Bergomi M et al. Risk of birth defects in a population exposed to environmental lead pollution. Sci Total Environ 2001 Oct 20;278(1-3):23-30.

Vintzileos A, Ananth C, Smulian J, et al. The impact of prenatal care in the United States on preterm births in the presence and absence of antenatal high-risk conditions. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2002 187(5):1254-1257.

Vohra S, Koren G. Hypothetical framework for a relationship between maternal thyroid function, nausea and vomiting of pregnancy, and congenital heart disease. Med Hypotheses 2001 Mar;56(3):392-4.

Vos J, de Heer C, van Lovern H. Immunotoxic effects of TCDD and toxic equivalency factors. Teratog Carcinogen Mutagen 1997/98 17:275-284.

Vrijheid M, Dolk H. Residence near hazardous waste landfill sites and risk of non-chromosomal congenital malformations. Teratology 1997 Dec;56(6):401.

Wang X, Ding H, Ryan L, Xu X. Association between air pollution and low birth weight: a community-based study. Environmental Health Perspectives 105(5):514-520, 1997.

Wang X, Zuckerman B, Pearson C, et al. Maternal cigarette smoking, metabolic gene polymorphism, and infant birth weight. JAMA 2002 287(2):195-202.

Wang X, Chen D, Niu T, et al. Genetic susceptibility to benzene and shortened gestation: evidence of gene-environment interaction. Am J Epidemiol 2000 152(8):693-700.

Weisglas-Kuperus N, Patandin S, Berbers G, et al. Immunologic effects of background exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls and dioxins in Dutch preschool children. Environmental Health Perspectives 2000 108(12):1203-1207.

Werler MM, Mitchell AA, Shapiro S. First trimester maternal medication use in relation to gastroschisis. Teratology 1992 Apr;45(4):361-7.

Xu X, Ding H, Wang X. Acute effects of total suspended particles and sulfur dioxides on preterm delivery: a community based cohort study. Arch Environ Health 1995 50(6):407-415.

Yeargin-Allsopp M, Rice C, Karapurkar T, et al. Prevalence of autism in a US metropolitan area. JAMA 2003 289:49-55.

Zierler S, Theodore M, Cohen A et al. Chemical quality of maternal drinking water and congenital heart disease. Int J Epidemiol 1988 Sep;17(3):589-94.

Zierler S, Rothman KJ. Congenital heart disease in relation to maternal use of Bendectin and other drugs in early pregnancy. New England Journal of Medicine 1985 Aug 8;313(6):347-52.